Language Development
"Language is a system of symbols that is used to communicate with others or in our thinking" (Levine and Munsch, 2014).
Language Development Theories
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A big part of language acquisition is imitation, linked with Bandura's Social Cognitive Learning Theory, and exposure. By children saying or repeating the things that adults do they are learning how to make language a part of their daily lives. Another huge part is exposure. If children are around adults or in an environment not using language all the time, they will have a much more difficult time attaining it. B.F. Skinner also emphasizes reinforcement or operant conditioning when it comes to a child learning language. It is important for adults to let the child know when they begin babbling that this is a good thing. To do so adults must respond in ways that children understand such as gestures or expressions that show them they are proud of their attempt to use language. |
Noam Chomsky came up with a different approach for language and discusses the idea of nativism. Nativism states that before a baby is even born they are already on track to learn language. He does not see that children would be able to learn language due to its complexity and that they must have this ability within. Chomsky describes this innate language and set of grammatical rules as being "hardwired" which he refers to as universal grammar. He disagreed with Skinner in thinking simple exposure and imitation isn't enough for a child to learn the amount of language they eventually do. Evidence for his theory is that children do sometimes say things that they have never heard before and creating rules for words that they may not understand how to properly use. This would be when children say eated instead of ate. This concept is known as overregulation or making an error in saying words not following the proper grammatical rule.
Another theory that exists is interactionism, or the idea that both inner abilities to acquire language as well as experiences play a role in language acquisition. These social interactions children have with adults are vital in a child acquiring language. The concept of recast is important in emphasizing this idea as it extends an idea child has in simple terms and broadens in. For example, a child may say, "Milk" and an adult may respond with, "Oh, you want milk?"
Cognitive processing theory is another theory that recognizes social interactions as important but focuses on the idea that language acquisition is learned. This idea is based on how a mother responds to their child's speech usage and also "data crunching" or the human brain's ability to process language. Data crunching is the idea that the brain is "crunching" or putting together words in order to figure out how they should be said or the patterns that they follow. The discovery of words following one another can be explained by transitional probability.
Cognitive processing theory is another theory that recognizes social interactions as important but focuses on the idea that language acquisition is learned. This idea is based on how a mother responds to their child's speech usage and also "data crunching" or the human brain's ability to process language. Data crunching is the idea that the brain is "crunching" or putting together words in order to figure out how they should be said or the patterns that they follow. The discovery of words following one another can be explained by transitional probability.
Brain Structure and its Relation to Language
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There are two parts that make up the brain in accordance with language. Broca's area is how an individual actually produces speech. So if for example this area gets damaged, an individual will have a very tough time speaking.
Wernicke's area is the next part involved with language and deals with understanding what is being said. So when someone speaks to an individual Wernicke's area is activated and decodes the meaning of what they are saying to allow an individual to comprehend. If this is damaged, a person will be unable to understand what is being said to them and will have a hard time responding. |
Prenatal Development
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When in the mother's womb a fetus is already learning language by hearing it. This is why a mother is encouraged to speak a lot to their child and even read to them to encourage the learning of language when they are born.
How Infants Use Language
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Infants main uses of language are crying, cooing, and then babbling. Crying results straight out of the womb and can first be seen as a reflexive behavior. However, once infants begin to have needs such as hunger or discomfort their crying starts to have reason behind it. Cooing then occurs several months after birth and is when babies make noises or sounds. This is sometimes considered a "pre conversation". The most advanced type of language use for infants is babbling. This first begins with one syllable sounds and repetition of these sounds. Eventually, these sounds are more familiar to that of their native language.
An Adult's Role in Language Acquisition
It is important for an adult to speak to their babies frequently in order for their child to eventually pick up on the language. This is a huge encouragement to a child to hear their parent speaking and they will become excited about speaking themselves. Child-directed speech is a particular speech geared towards children's sensory and cognitive understanding in order to get and keep their attention. This speech consists of a higher pitch and exaggerated tone and ultimately encourages language development.
Toddler's Development of Language
After a baby is several years old they have learned around 200 to 500 words. At this time, some infants have a vocabulary burst and begin to learn a vast amount of words in a short period of time, while for others word acquisition is slower. At this age children are beginning to understand words as well as say them and understand them as symbols. Children use constraints, or limitations to meaning when they learn new words. To name one constraint would be whole object bias which is when a child sees a word as representing a whole object. For example, if someone recognizes a dog, the child sees the word as representing the whole dog and not the sum of its parts (legs, tail, head).
Two ways that children learn words are through syntactic bootstrapping and semantic bootstrapping. Syntactic bootstrapping is using syntax to learn what words mean whereas semantic bootstrapping uses "conceptual categories (action words or object names) to create grammatical categories (verbs or nouns)" (Levine and Munsch, 2014). In these ways children are learning language independently.
Once children learn a number of words, two word phrases are next, marking the beginning of grammar. After two-word speech comes three plus words being combined. The combining of a few words to get a point across is labeled as telegraphic speech. Something important to note is not to correct a child when they are learning how to speak with more than three words. It is instead important to repeat what they said in the correct format after they made any errors. This will redirect their speech so that hopefully they will not make the error the next time they say something similar.
Two ways that children learn words are through syntactic bootstrapping and semantic bootstrapping. Syntactic bootstrapping is using syntax to learn what words mean whereas semantic bootstrapping uses "conceptual categories (action words or object names) to create grammatical categories (verbs or nouns)" (Levine and Munsch, 2014). In these ways children are learning language independently.
Once children learn a number of words, two word phrases are next, marking the beginning of grammar. After two-word speech comes three plus words being combined. The combining of a few words to get a point across is labeled as telegraphic speech. Something important to note is not to correct a child when they are learning how to speak with more than three words. It is instead important to repeat what they said in the correct format after they made any errors. This will redirect their speech so that hopefully they will not make the error the next time they say something similar.
Developing Preschoolers
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Most children by now are forming short sentences consisting of several morphemes and their language is usually increasing at a high speed. However, sometimes it is difficult for a child to explain everything they are saying and leave out information vital to the person receiving their message. This can be known as egocentric speech. An example of this would be, "I went to that place and saw the person there." This sentence does not explain what place the child is referring to or who they saw when they were there and demonstrates not taking the other person's understanding into account. Piaget recognized this idea and realized that it is most likely because children must learn socialization as well as language. Vygotsky argued Piaget on this point and saw that children are born to be social and see children as using private speech directed at talking to themselves.
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School-Age Children Developing Language
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At this age children are thinking about what language actually is and the process of using it which is also known as metalinguistic abilities. They also can now use words as more than just what they actually mean. For example a child may say, "School is a ball!"(Levine and Munsch, 2014). The use of sarcasm and irony is also prevalent in their language at this time.
Children are also learning to read through different approaches: phonics approach and whole language instruction. The "phonics approach focuses on letter-sound relationships" (Levine and Munsch, 2014) whereas "whole language instruction focuses on using reading materials that are inherently interesting to the child" (Levine and Munsch, 2014). Research shows that proficiency in reading has increased in the past decade for older grades but that younger grades are still struggling. This could have to do with the certain reading approach being implemented and it may be important to reconsider what is being implemented. Children are also learning to write and develop basic skills such as writing moving from left to write or from the top of the page down. Although these skills seem very basic, they are of great importance to establish the logistics of writing. It takes time for their letters to become legible and more clear but this is expected. Usually writing names is a first step of writing and then writing more words implementing the skill of sounding out words in order to learn how to spell them. In elementary school, child learn rules for spelling and more about language in writing in hopes that the process will become very natural. It is important that children recognize that writing is ultimately to confer information and describe certain concepts, objects, or experiences. |
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Teenagers and Language
Adolescent speech takes a while to develop into more of an adult-like language. Sentences are usually more lengthy and complex, but they are known to incorporate slang, made-up words, or use short cuts. The types of slang or shortcuts change very frequently and differ around the word. Text-messaging or the use of technology has made for many shortcuts in speech or writing such as the use of LOL, NMU, or SUP. It is important that teens understand when to use these words and when it is not appropriate, such as in school papers. Writing skills are so important and are deciding factors for those trying to search for a job. Adolescents must make sure that even though they use these fake words or shortcuts that they know how to make clear usage of writing skills in order to be successful in the future.
